Complex Thinking: How to understand the world in its entirety

In an increasingly interconnected, volatile, and ambiguous world, simple solutions and linear approaches are no longer sufficient. We face challenges—from the climate crisis and digital transformation to business management and artificial intelligence—that demand a new way of thinking, one that embraces uncertainty, interconnection, and multidimensionality. This is where complex thinking comes into play.

Complex thinking is a desired competency in university students and future workers to face the challenges of 21st-century workplaces and social spaces (Patiño et al., 2023), as well as in entrepreneurs to face changes in the market, competition, and to promote innovation processes. But what exactly is complex thinking? Is it simply “thinking a lot” or is it a discipline with its own principles and methods? How does it differ from critical or systemic thinking? And, most importantly, how can we apply it to more successfully navigate our professional and personal lives?

This article is a deep dive into the universe of complex thinking. We will explore its definition, its origins, its fundamental principles, and its practical applications in fields as diverse as education and management. If you are looking for a way to understand reality in all its richness and contradiction, and to make better decisions in a challenging environment, developing your complex thinking skills can prepare you to face these challenges.

What is complex thinking? Beyond simplicity

The term “complex thinking” was coined by Edgar Morin and captured in his magnum opus La Méthode (Blay and Piqueira, 2024), who defines it not as the opposite of simple, but as that which is “woven together” (complexus). It is a paradigm that opposes the simplifying way of thinking, which tends to reduce, separate, and isolate knowledge. In contrast, complex thinking seeks to connect, contextualize, and globalize information to understand phenomena as interrelated systems.

In this regard, Silva and Iturra (2021) postulate that “complex thinking is configured by the interrelation and complementarity of three main cognitive processes: critical thinking, creative thinking, and metacognition.” Meanwhile, Patiño et al., (2023) state that “complex thinking is the capacity of an individual to apply integrative thinking when solving a problem, a strategy or way of thinking that has a globalizing or encompassing intention towards phenomena, but which, at the same time, recognizes the specificity of the parts.”

In this sense, the need for the complex thinking approach arises from the insufficiency of the paradigm of simplicity, which has dominated Western science for centuries. This model, based on disjunction (separating what is linked), reduction (unifying the diverse into a single element), and abstraction (eliminating context), is useful for certain types of problems but fails spectacularly when faced with the inherent complexity of living, social, and human systems.

Key differences: Complex thinking vs. critical, systemic, and innovative thinking

It is common to confuse complex thinking with other modes of advanced reasoning. In this respect, Alonso et al. (2023) report that complex thinking integrates four essential sub-competencies:

• Critical thinking: The ability to evaluate the validity of one’s own and others’ reasoning, forming logical judgments, identifying false arguments, and reconsidering existing paradigms.
• Systemic thinking: The capacity to analyze problems in an integrative manner, considering the interconnection and complexity of reality, and appreciating the multiple elements that compose it.
• Scientific thinking: A set of reasoning strategies and cognitive processes that address reality with an objective view and validated methods, using inductive and deductive reasoning, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
• Innovative (or creative) thinking: Mental processes of search and discovery that allow for positioning a problem, visualizing it from various perspectives, and generating original and feasible solutions.

The 7 principles of complex thinking by Edgar Morin

Edgar Morin not only criticized simplifying thinking but also proposed a series of “operators” or principles for thinking about complexity. These are not recipes, but guides for navigating uncertainty and interconnection. García (2020) described the seven principles of complex thinking established by Morin:

1. Systemic or organizational principle: The idea that “the whole is more than the sum of its parts.” Knowledge of the parts is not enough to know the whole, as new properties emerge from the whole that do not exist in the isolated parts. For example, consciousness emerges from the brain but cannot be explained by studying individual neurons.
2. Hologramatic principle: Similar to the previous one, this principle posits that the part is in the whole and, in turn, the whole is (in a way) in the part. Each cell in our body contains our entire genetic code. Likewise, society as a whole is present in each individual through language and culture.
3. Feedback loop principle: This breaks with the idea of linear causality. The cause acts on the effect, and the effect, in turn, acts back on the cause. A heating system is a classic example: the thermostat (cause) turns on the furnace (effect), but the resulting temperature (effect) turns off the thermostat (feedback on the cause). In human systems, this allows for self-regulation.
4. Recursive loop principle: A step beyond the previous one. It is a loop where the products and effects are, at the same time, causes and producers of that which produces them. We, as individuals, produce society through our interactions, but society, with its norms and culture, produces us as individuals.
5. Auto-Eco-Organization (Autonomy/Dependency) principle: Living beings and human systems are autonomous; they have their own rules and self-organize to maintain their structure. But, to be autonomous, they fundamentally depend on the environment (the ecology) for energy and information. Autonomy is inseparable from dependency.
6. Dialogic principle: This allows for maintaining duality within unity. It associates two terms that are both complementary and antagonistic, without hiding the contradiction. The clearest example is order and disorder. They are enemies, one suppresses the other, but in many phenomena (like the universe or life itself), they collaborate and produce each other.
7. Principle of reintroduction of the subject into knowledge: All knowledge is a construction of the observer. The simplifying paradigm aimed for objective and absolute knowledge, eliminating the observing subject. Complex thinking recognizes that the knower cannot be separated from the known. This implies a constant critical reflection on our own point of view.

Characteristics of a complex thinker

Developing the ability to think in a complex way is not just an academic matter; it is reflected in certain traits and attitudes. According to scientific literature, people who adopt this approach tend to exhibit the following characteristics:

• Insatiable curiosity: They constantly question reality, do not accept things as given, and always seek to understand the deepest layers of a problem.
• Attraction to complexity: While many prefer simplicity and direct answers, a complex thinker is drawn to nuances, ambiguities, and multifaceted problems.
• Independent thinking: They are not afraid to hold unpopular opinions or take the road less traveled if their analysis leads them there. They value the internal consistency of their ideas over consensus.
• Holistic vision: They strive to see the “big picture,” connecting ideas from different disciplines and understanding how the parts of a system influence each other.
• Tolerance for uncertainty: They accept that not all questions have clear answers and are comfortable operating in gray areas, where information is incomplete or contradictory.
• Introspection and self-awareness: They are reflective about their own thought processes, recognize their biases, and are open to changing their minds in the face of new evidence.
• Preference for deep conversations: They avoid superficiality and seek dialogues that explore complex ideas, challenge assumptions, and generate new knowledge.

On the other hand, if you want to evaluate your complex thinking skills in the context of sustainable social development, you can use the COMPLEX-21 scale developed by Tobón and Luna-Nemecio (2021). For their part, Vázquez et al. (2024) successfully validated the eComplexity instrument, providing a reliable tool to assess complex thinking and highlighting the importance of scientific and systemic thinking in its development.

Applications of Complex Thinking in the 21st Century

The true test of a paradigm is its ability to solve real problems. Complex thinking is proving to be an indispensable tool in a variety of fields. Blay and Piqueira (2024) highlight the relevance and application of complex thinking in diverse areas such as education, philosophy, sociology, and creative entrepreneurship. Below, we describe the applications of complex thinking in education and business management:

Education and university transformation

The traditional educational system, fragmented into isolated subjects, is a product of simplifying thinking. In this regard, Ramírez et al. (2022) analyze complex thinking as a macro-competency, which requires mastering the cognitive skills necessary for scientific, innovative, critical, and systemic thinking to face contextual challenges.

There is a growing academic interest in complex thinking and its relationship with education, especially in the social sciences, with the United States, Brazil, and Mexico leading scientific production in this field (Baena-Rojas et al., 2022). Based on scientific research, the application of complex thinking in education implies:

• Transdisciplinarity: Overcoming barriers between subjects to address real-world problems (such as climate change or social inequality) that cannot be understood from a single discipline.
• Competency development: Fostering skills such as critical, systemic, and innovative thinking, preparing students not to memorize answers, but to formulate the right questions. According to the research results of George and Oliva (2025), the development of complex thinking competencies can strengthen scientific entrepreneurship, and the design of training experiences, accompanied by the use of learning platforms, can positively influence the self-assessment of university students’ entrepreneurial skills.
• Learning to navigate uncertainty: In the age of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and digital transformation, where knowledge quickly becomes obsolete, the ability to adapt, learn, and think flexibly is more important than ever. Complex thinking is the foundation for developing this “competency to reason in complexity.”

Management and business decision-making

In the business world, the mechanistic view of the organization is being replaced by a vision of the company as a complex adaptive system (CAS). In this way, complex thinking is an important tool for effective decision-making, as it helps people better understand uncertain situations by considering the multiple variables and relationships involved, allowing them to identify patterns and connections that would not otherwise be apparent (Pacheco et al., 2023).

A complex thinking approach in management implies:

• Holistic strategic vision: Instead of optimizing departments in isolation (marketing, finance, operations), leaders must understand how their decisions interact and affect the entire organization and its ecosystem (customers, competitors, regulators). Alonso et al. (2023) state that complex thinking is a fundamental tool for effective decision-making, as it allows for a better understanding of uncertain situations by considering multiple variables and relationships, helping to identify patterns and connections that would not otherwise be evident.
• Managing uncertainty: Business models are no longer static. Leaders must “probe, sense, respond” instead of “analyze, plan, execute.” It is about conducting small experiments, learning from failures, and adapting quickly, rather than betting on rigid five-year plans.
• Fostering diversity and collaboration: Recognizing that solutions to complex problems rarely come from a single person or department. A diversity of perspectives and constant dialogue are needed to co-create robust solutions.

Trends in the study of Complex Thinking

Scientific studies on complex thinking are a continuously developing area. Blay and Piqueira (2024) draw a parallel with Design Thinking, which shares similarities with Morin’s dialogic, recursive, and holographic principles. Design Thinking, with its stages of inspiration, ideation, and implementation, seeks to simplify complex topics to find efficient and practical solutions.

For their part, Teixeira de Melo and Renault (2025) have developed a new methodology called “Complexigraphy” to map and analyze complex thinking, which serves as a framework for research conducted in this field.

Conclusion

Complex thinking is not a magic solution, but an invitation to a profound change in our way of approaching knowledge and reality. It is a call to intellectual humility, to recognize the limits of our knowledge, and to always be open to surprise, to the unexpected, to dialogue.

In a time defined by global interdependence, exponential technological advances, and systemic challenges, the ability to think in a complex way is no longer an intellectual luxury; it is a necessity for survival and flourishing. Adopting its principles—seeing connections, accepting uncertainty, dialoguing with contradiction, and reflecting on our own thinking—equips us to be more conscious, resilient, and effective citizens, professionals, and human beings.

The journey toward complex thinking is, in itself, a complex process. It requires curiosity, patience, and the courage to abandon comfortable certainties. But the reward is immense: a deeper, richer, and more authentic understanding of the world and our place in it.

Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

1. What is the main difference between complex thinking and critical thinking?
The main difference is the scope. Critical thinking focuses on analyzing and evaluating the validity of information and arguments. It is an essential tool for analysis. Complex thinking, while using critical thinking, goes further: it seeks to integrate the analyzed knowledge into an interconnected, contextualized, and multidimensional whole, accepting uncertainty and contradiction as parts of the system.

2. Who is Edgar Morin and why is he so important for complex thinking?
Edgar Morin is a French philosopher and sociologist, considered the father of complex thinking. His monumental work, “The Method,” develops the epistemological, theoretical, and methodological foundations of this paradigm. Morin criticized the reductionist approach of traditional science and proposed the seven principles (systemic, holographic, feedback loop, etc.) as guides for thinking about the complexity of the real world.

3. How can I start applying complex thinking in my daily life?
You can start by practicing curiosity and asking questions that seek connections: “How does this relate to that?”, “What is the broader context here?”, “What perspectives am I missing?”. Try to see problems from multiple angles, identify feedback loops in your habits or relationships, and reflect on how your own beliefs and emotions influence your perception of a situation.

4. Is complex thinking anti-scientific?
Quite the contrary. Complex thinking does not reject science but seeks to expand it. It criticizes what Morin calls “blind science,” that which is incapable of reflecting on itself and applies reductionist methods to problems that are not reducible. It advocates for a science more conscious of its social and ethical implications, and more capable of dialoguing between disciplines to address the great challenges of our time.

5. What is the relationship between complex thinking and creativity?
The relationship is very close. Creativity often arises from the ability to connect seemingly unrelated ideas, to see patterns where others see chaos, and to challenge established assumptions. Complex thinking, by fostering a holistic vision, transdisciplinarity, and tolerance for ambiguity, creates the ideal fertile ground for new and original ideas to flourish.

References

Alonso-Galicia, P. E., Medina-Vidal, A. & Grande, S. (2023). Entrepreneurial Decisions and Problem-Solving: a Discussion for a New Perspective Based on Complex Thinking. In M. Koc, O. T. Ozturk & M. L. Ciddi (Eds.), Proceedings of ICRES 2023 International Conference on Research in Education and Science, (pp. 822-930), Cappadocia, Turkey. ISTES Organization.

Baena-Rojas, J. J., Ramírez-Montoya, M. S., Mazo-Cuervo, D. M., & López-Caudana, E. O. (2022). Traits of Complex Thinking: A Bibliometric Review of a Disruptive Construct in Education. Journal of Intelligence, 10(3), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10030037

Blay, E. A., & Piqueira, J. R. C. (2024). The Emergence of Edgar Morin’s Complex Thinking. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 96(4), e20231112.

García, A. E. (2020). Los principios de la complejidad y su aporte al proceso de enseñanza. Ensaio: Avaliação e Políticas Públicas em Educação, 28, 1012-1032.

George-Reyes, C. E., & Oliva-Córdova, L. M. (2025). Pensamiento complejo como habilitador del emprendimiento científico: autovaloración desde la educación superior en Guatemala [Complex thinking as an enabler of scientific entrepreneurship: self-assessment from higher education in Guatemala]. Pixel-Bit. Revista De Medios Y Educación, 73, art.5. https://doi.org/10.12795/pixelbit.111533

Pacheco-Velázquez, E. A., Vázquez-Parra, J. C., Cruz-Sandoval, M., Salinas-Navarro, D. E., & Carlos-Arroyo, M. (2023). Business Decision-Making and Complex Thinking: A Bibliometric Study. Administrative Sciences, 13(3), 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci13030080

Patiño, A., Ramírez-Montoya, M.S. & Buenestado-Fernández, M. Active learning and education 4.0 for complex thinking training: analysis of two case studies in open education. Smart Learn. Environ. 10, 8 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00229-x

Ramírez-Montoya, M. S., Castillo-Martínez, I. M., Sanabria-Z, J., & Miranda, J. (2022). Complex Thinking in the Framework of Education 4.0 and Open Innovation—A Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 8(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc8010004

Silva Pacheco, C., & Iturra Herrera, C. (2021). A conceptual proposal and operational definitions of the cognitive processes of complex thinking. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 39, 100794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100794

Teixeira de Melo, A., Renault, L. Complexigraphy: theoretical foundations and methodological challenges of mapping complex thinking. Phenom Cogn Sci (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-025-10071-w

Tobón, S., & Luna-Nemecio, J. (2021). Complex Thinking and Sustainable Social Development: Validity and Reliability of the COMPLEX-21 Scale. Sustainability, 13(12), 6591. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126591

Vázquez-Parra JC, Henao-Rodriguez LC, Lis-Gutiérrez JP, Castillo-Martínez IM and Suarez-Brito P (2024) eComplexity: validation of a complex thinking instrument from a structural equation model. Front. Educ. 9:1334834. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1334834

Milthon Lujan Monja

Editor and founder of “Innovar o Morir” (‘Innovate or Die’). Milthon holds a Master’s degree in Science and Innovation Management from the Polytechnic University of Valencia, with postgraduate diplomas in Business Innovation (UPV) and Market-Oriented Innovation Management (UPCH-Universitat Leipzig). He has practical experience in innovation management, having led the Fisheries Innovation Unit of the National Program for Innovation in Fisheries and Aquaculture (PNIPA) and worked as a consultant on open innovation diagnostics and technology watch. He firmly believes in the power of innovation and creativity as drivers of change and development.